Socialization

Every person learns how to act in society through experience — absorbing the norms, customs, and beliefs of the groups they belong to, from childhood onward. This process is called socialization, and it's the mechanism by which societies pass their norms, customs, and beliefs from one generation to the next and from one member to another. This article covers the forms socialization takes, the norms and sanctions that regulate behavior, how deviance and stigma are explained, and the three ways individual behavior bends under social pressure: conformity, compliance, and obedience.

Key Takeaways

• Socialization is how individuals learn acceptable behavior through social experience; cultural transmission describes how a society socializes its members, while cultural diffusion describes the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs.

• Socialization takes four forms: primary (childhood, foundational), secondary (later, context-specific refinements), anticipatory (preparing for future roles), and resocialization (discarding old behaviors for a life change).

• Norms define acceptable behavior and are enforced through sanctions (positive or negative, including negative sanctions like fines and incarceration); mores are widely observed norms, folkways govern polite behavior in specific interactions, and violating norms risks being seen as taboo.

• Media is one agent of socialization, shaping beliefs and establishing pop culture.

• Deviance is any violation of societal norms, not necessarily negative; social stigma is extreme disapproval based on perceived differences and can spread to associated individuals.

• Three theories explain deviance: labeling theory (labels shape self-image and others' responses), differential association theory (deviance is learned through exposure to deviant vs. norm-adhering individuals), and strain theory (deviance arises from a disconnect between social goals and social structure).

• Conformity matches behavior to group norms, either through internalization (privately agreeing) or identification (outwardly conforming only); compliance responds to a request from someone without real power, using techniques like foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, lowball, and that's-not-all; obedience responds to a direct order from a perceived authority figure — as shown by Milgram's experiment, where 65% of participants obeyed to the maximum shock level.

Socialization

Socialization is the use of social experiences to learn acceptable behavior in society. It's part of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs across a group.

Two related terms describe how this happens at the society level. Cultural transmission (also called cultural learning) is the way a society socializes its members. Cultural diffusion is the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs — how these elements move outward through and between groups.

Socialization itself takes several forms, distinguished by when and where they happen:

• Primary socialization occurs during childhood, when acceptable actions and attitudes in society are initially learned.

• Secondary socialization is the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society. It occurs outside the home and is for learning the rules of specific environments. It's associated with adults and adolescents, and it involves smaller changes and refinements to behavior rather than the foundational learning of primary socialization.

• Anticipatory socialization is the process by which a person prepares for future changes in their occupation, living situation, or relationships.

• Resocialization occurs when a person discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change.

MCAT Callout — Primary vs. secondary socialization: the distinguishing factor isn't just age, it's scope. Primary socialization is the foundational, childhood-based learning of society's broad norms and attitudes. Secondary socialization is later, smaller-scale, and context-specific — learning the particular rules of a workplace, team, or social circle. A vignette describing a child first learning right from wrong is primary socialization; one describing an adult learning the unwritten rules of a new job is secondary socialization.

Norms

Norms are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. They provide a mechanism for regulating the behaviors of individuals and groups, and they serve as a means of social control even though they aren't laws. Norms give people a sense of what's appropriate and what's considered taboo — socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible.

A few related terms describe specific kinds of norms and how they're enforced:

• Mores are widely observed norms.

• Sanctions are penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior, and they can be used as a means of social control. Negative sanctions specifically include fines, incarceration, corporal punishment (infliction of pain), and capital punishment (execution).

• Folkways are norms that refer to behavior considered polite in particular social interactions.

Agents of Socialization

Socialization doesn't happen in a vacuum — it's shaped by specific agents in society. Media is one such agent: it has the ability to impact beliefs and determine what's considered important, and it can establish pop culture.

Deviance and Stigma

Deviance is any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society. It doesn't necessarily have to be negative — it just has to go against societal norms.

Social stigma is extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society. These perceived differences can include beliefs, abilities, behaviors, and appearance — for example, certain medical conditions like HIV, obesity, or dwarfism can carry social stigma. Stigma can also spread to affect people who are simply associated with a stigmatized individual.

Three theories explain why deviance happens and how it connects to stigma:

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory suggests that the labels given to people affect both a person's self-image and how others respond to that person. Behavior can be channeled into deviance or conformity depending on the label: a person can develop a reinforced motivation to be deviant and go against norms, or a motivation to reform and be welcomed back by society. Labeling theory links deviance, stigmatization, and reputation together.

Differential Association Theory

Differential association theory holds that deviance can be learned through interactions with others. Exposure to deviant individuals may lay the groundwork for a person to engage in deviant behavior themselves, while exposure to norm-adhering individuals pulls in the opposite direction. Differential association is the degree to which a person is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms versus ideals that go against them — more association with one group over the other causes the person to gravitate toward that group's behavior.

Strain Theory

Strain theory explains deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure. The classic example is the "American Dream": individuals believe they can obtain great wealth and status by pursuing socially approved goals, but the structure of society doesn't guarantee that everyone who pursues those goals will achieve them. Deviant behavior may arise as an attempt to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure.

Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

Social pressure changes individual behavior in three distinct ways, depending on where the pressure comes from and how much power it carries.

Conformity

Conformity is matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms — also known as majority influence. Normative conformity is the desire to fit into a group out of fear of rejection. Conformity itself can take two different internal forms:

• Internalization is changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of that group.

• Identification is outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally believing them.

MCAT Callout — Internalization vs. identification: both describe conforming to a group, but they differ in what's happening internally. Internalization means the person's private beliefs actually shift to match the group. Identification means the person goes along outwardly while privately holding onto their original views. If a question describes someone who genuinely changes their mind, that's internalization; if it describes someone just going through the motions, that's identification.

Compliance

Compliance is a change in behavior based on a direct request. Unlike obedience, the person or group making the request usually has no actual power to command the individual. Four techniques are commonly used to produce compliance:

• Foot-in-the-door technique: a small request is made, and then a larger request is made after the first one is accepted.

• Door-in-the-face technique: the opposite approach — a large request is made first, and then a second, smaller request is made if the larger one is refused. The smaller request is usually the requester's actual goal; after the large request, it seems more reasonable and is more likely to be accepted.

• Lowball technique: the requester gets an initial commitment from an individual, and then raises the cost of that commitment.

• That's-not-all technique: an individual is made an offer, but before they can make a decision, they're told the deal is even better than expected.

MCAT Callout — Foot-in-the-door vs. door-in-the-face: these two techniques are mirror images of each other, which makes them easy to mix up. Foot-in-the-door starts small and escalates (small request → large request). Door-in-the-face starts large and retreats (large request → small request, which was the real goal all along). Check which request comes first to tell them apart.

Obedience

Obedience is changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure. People are far more likely to obey than to comply, because of the real or perceived social power the authority figure holds.

This was tested in psychologist Stanley Milgram's classic obedience experiment, using a teacher-and-learner setup: participants acting as "teachers" were instructed to deliver an electric shock to a "learner" for each incorrect answer, with the shock increasing in intensity after every mistake. Researchers insisted the teacher must continue delivering and increasing the shocks. Despite many participants showing visible discomfort, 65% continued administering shocks all the way to the maximum level — a far higher rate of obedience than experts had predicted beforehand.

Why Socialization Matters for the MCAT

MCAT questions on this material typically describe a scenario and ask you to identify the specific mechanism or type at play:

• Match the type of socialization to its scope, not just the age of the person involved. Primary socialization is foundational and childhood-based; secondary, anticipatory, and resocialization all involve later-life adjustments, but each has its own trigger (context-specific rules, future preparation, or a deliberate life change).

• Know which deviance theory fits which mechanism. Labeling theory is about the effect of being labeled; differential association is about learning deviance through exposure to others; strain theory is about a goals-versus-structure mismatch. A vignette can usually be matched to exactly one of these based on what's actually driving the behavior.

• Distinguish conformity, compliance, and obedience by the source and power of the social pressure. Conformity responds to a group norm, compliance responds to a request from someone without real power, and obedience responds to an order from a perceived authority figure.

• Milgram's finding (65%) is a specific, testable number — don't round it down to "most people refused." The experiment's significance is that obedience rates were far higher than predicted.

Common MCAT Mistakes

• Treating secondary, anticipatory, and resocialization as interchangeable "adult socialization." They're distinct triggers: secondary socialization is context-specific rule-learning, anticipatory socialization is preparing for a future role, and resocialization is deliberately discarding old behaviors for a life change.

• Confusing mores, folkways, and sanctions. Mores and folkways are types of norms (widely observed vs. politeness-based); sanctions are the penalties or rewards used to enforce norms — not a type of norm themselves.

• Mixing up foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face. Foot-in-the-door escalates from a small initial request to a larger one; door-in-the-face starts with a large request and retreats to the smaller one that was the actual goal.

• Assuming obedience and compliance are the same because both involve changing behavior for someone else. Obedience responds to an order from a perceived authority figure with real or perceived power to command; compliance responds to a request from someone without that power.

MCAT-Style Concept Check

Question: A new employee learns, through trial and error and coworker feedback, which unwritten office norms govern how casually she can dress and how she should address her manager in meetings. Which concept best describes this process?

• A) Primary socialization

• B) Secondary socialization

• C) Resocialization

• D) Differential association

Answer: B

Explanation: Secondary socialization is the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society — it occurs outside the home, is associated with adults and adolescents, and involves smaller, context-specific refinements rather than foundational learning. Learning a specific workplace's unwritten rules fits this exactly. Primary socialization (A) is the foundational, childhood-based learning of society's broad norms, not applicable to an adult learning office-specific rules. Resocialization (C) involves discarding old behaviors for a deliberate life change, not adjusting to a new job's norms. Differential association (D) is a theory of how deviance is learned through exposure to others, not a form of socialization.

FAQ

What's the difference between primary and secondary socialization?

Primary socialization is the foundational learning of society's broad norms and attitudes that happens in childhood. Secondary socialization happens later — usually in adolescence or adulthood — and involves smaller-scale, context-specific learning, like the rules of a particular workplace or social circle.

What's the difference between mores, folkways, and sanctions?

Mores and folkways are both types of norms: mores are widely observed norms, while folkways specifically govern polite behavior in particular social interactions. Sanctions are separate — they're the penalties (negative sanctions like fines or incarceration) or rewards used to enforce norms, not a category of norm themselves.

How do labeling theory, differential association theory, and strain theory each explain deviance?

Labeling theory says the labels applied to a person shape their self-image and how others treat them, which can push them toward or away from deviant behavior. Differential association theory says deviance is learned through exposure to deviant versus norm-adhering individuals. Strain theory says deviance arises from a mismatch between socially approved goals and the actual structure available to achieve them.

Why did so many participants in Milgram's experiment continue to the maximum shock level?

Milgram's experiment tested obedience — behavior change in response to a direct order from a perceived authority figure. Despite visible discomfort, 65% of participants continued to the maximum shock level because of the real or perceived social power held by the researcher giving the instructions, illustrating how strongly people tend to obey authority even against their own evident discomfort.